— Irfanullah Farooqi Not even a few turn an insulting and dehumanising experience into a preface to a quest that inspires generations. Think of Periyar E V Ramasamy, who was denied food in Varanasi because he was not a Brahmin; B R Ambedkar, who was not allowed to touch the water tap in his school premises because he was “untouchable”; Mahatma Gandhi, who was thrown out of a first class carriage in South Africa because he was a non-white. While it may not be appropriate to suggest an equivalence in these experiences, what brings them together is that each of these luminaries turned the humiliation into a moral resolve and transformative action. Jyotirao Phule offers another example. At the age of 21, he was humiliated at the wedding of a Brahmin friend despite being an invited guest, because he belonged to the Shudra caste. Little did the culprits know that their acts would only hasten the making of a Mahatma. As this year marks the beginning of Phule’s 200th birth anniversary celebrations, let’s revisit the life and work of this social reformer, educator, fierce critic of caste, and pioneer of women’s education. Why Phule preferred Jotirao over Jyotirao Jyotirao Govindrao Phule was born on April 11, 1827, in Satara (Maharashtra) into a family that belonged to the gardener (mali) caste. Originally known as ‘Gorhe’, the family came to be known as ‘Phule’ after male members became florists. The family’s ancestors served the Peshwas, who gave them a large piece of land and a garden. It did not take long for Phule to understand the structural privileges enjoyed by Brahmins. They dominated key administrative positions, enjoyed tax concessions, lived privileged lives, and received relatively lenient treatment under the law. Phule was convinced that this dominance was deeply institutionalised. Even his preference for the name Jotirao over the more Sanskritised “Jyotirao” reflected a conscious resistance to Brahmanical dominance. How he drew attention to intersectionality Phule was painfully aware of the inhuman conditions in which the socially marginalised communities lived their day-to-day lives. While he was struck by the perceived normalisation of such injustices, he also recognised that the subjugation of women (especially those from lower caste) in the caste-ridden society required a keener and more robust intervention. Phule repeatedly underlined how girls and women from marginalised caste communities were further marginalised. In doing so, he drew people’s attention to intersectionality more than a century and a quarter before Kimberly Crenshaw made that noteworthy contribution in feminism and legal studies. At the same time, he even challenged deprivations and restrictions faced by upper-caste women several decades before Pandita Ramabai’s much-cited tract, The High-Caste Hindu Woman (1887), shook the moral foundations of the Hindu social order. Reformist interventions The first half of the 19th century is widely remembered and celebrated as a period of social reforms in India. Figures like Raja Rammohun Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar made notable interventions against practices like Sati, child-marriage, polygamy, and restrictions on widow-remarriage. Their interventions were crucial in questioning oppressive and inhuman practices that had acquired legitimacy in the name of ‘tradition’ and religion. While all of this was happening in Bengal, the Bombay Presidency saw a powerful wave of reforms not long after. When Phule was making sense of the social formation and cultural apparatus around him, interventions with respect to widow-remarriage, women’s education, etc., were already in place. But Phule believed that these reform movements were not able to make necessary dents in everyday social life, as they were largely led by upper-caste men. In his view, while they spoke about justice and equality, they did not exactly understand (or lack experiential understanding) what it meant to be subjected to injustice and discrimination. Therefore, Phule wanted to strike at the very root of the social structure, and for that, he had to carve out his own path. Advocacy for women’s education Phule’s reformist journey began when he started a school for lower-caste girls in 1848 in Pune – a stronghold of orthodox and conservative Hindu traditionalists. His wife, Savitribai Phule, worked with him as a fellow comrade. The social backlash was not unexpected, but what the couple certainly did not see coming was that they would be asked by Phule’s father to leave their home. Although the first school was shut down for a brief period due to financial reasons, Phule established three more schools for girls between 1851 and 1859. Notably, the number of students also increased over time. Unlike many of his contemporary reformers, Phule didn’t advocate for women’s education because it would make them better companions, more informed mothers, or more capable household managers. For him, education was primarily about creating awareness and critical consciousness. This vision is reflected in the work of Muktabai Salve, a student of one of Phule’s schools. Her essay, Mang Maharachya Dukhvisayi (About the Grief of the Mangs and the Mahars), written as part of her school studies, was a critical feminist prose. In contrast to other 19th century education reformist efforts that often relied on a trickle-down approach, Phule directly targeted the socially marginalised communities. While appearing before the Hunter Commission in October 1882, he questioned the British government’s assumption that educated upper castes would spread education among the lower castes. He argued for concerted efforts to educate lower-caste groups. Beyond education, Phule advocated widow remarriage and opposed polygamy on the pretext of progeny. Moreover, what truly attests to his stature as a perceptive visionary and thinker is the setting up of anti-abortion centres for widows. He and his workers offered safe spaces for widows to give birth and have their babies taken care of. Important works Alongside doing exemplary work in the field of education and social justice, Phule was deeply engaged in public scholarship. His writings thoroughly raised the issue of the exploitation of lower castes. Some of his prominent works are Trutiya Ratna (1855), Gulamgiri (1873), Shetkaryacha Asood (1883), and Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Pustak (published posthumously in 1891). Phule was also an excellent poet. His poems offer commentaries on various registers of oppression. Gulamgiri, one of Phule’s most celebrated works, offers a scathing critique of Brahmanical domination. Written in the form of a dialogue, it exposes the immoral foundations of laws and norms framed by the Brahmins. Phule argues that hierarchical structure was deliberately sustained through religious and social norms that institutionalised inequality and pushed the ‘impure castes’ into an undignified existence, one that was socially meaningless. Soon after publishing Gulamgiri, Phule held a meeting of his co-workers and formed the Satyashodhak Samaj. The prime objective of the organisation was to free the Shudras and the untouchables from exploitative caste practices. It emphasised that everyone was to be treated as children of one god, who was to be worshipped without any interlocutor. Enduring legacy of Phule’s vision Given his peerless legacy, it is difficult to describe Phule’s continued significance. Unlike many reformists, Phule lived what he preached. When one of the renowned reformists mentioned that he could not get his widowed sister remarried because it would hurt his father, Phule told him, “Then don’t parade as a reformist”, as noted in Tarkateertha Laxmanshastri Joshi's biography of Phule. Perhaps what we can learn from Phule’s life and works is the unmatched vitality of a life that is lived by higher moral principles. As this year marks the beginning of his 200th birth anniversary celebrations, let’s inform ourselves more about his contributions to social transformation in India, and learn to live by his ideals. Post read questions Jyotirao Phule’s critique of caste was structural rather than reformist. Examine. How did Phule challenge the ‘trickle-down’ theory of education during his deposition before the Hunter Commission? Evaluate the objectives and significance of the Satyashodhak Samaj. How do Phule’s actions reflect the ethical principles of justice, equality, and moral courage? Compare the reformist approaches of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Jyotirao Phule in addressing social inequalities. (Irfanullah Farooqi is an Assistant Professor at the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode.) Share your thoughts and ideas on UPSC Special articles with ashiya.parveen@indianexpress.com. Gear up for UPSC Prelims 2026—Practice smarter, revise faster, and succeed with our Special Quiz Magazine. (Click Here) Click Here to read the UPSC Essentials magazine for April 2026. Subscribe to our UPSC newsletter and stay updated with the news cues from the past week. Stay updated with the latest UPSC articles by joining our Telegram channel – IndianExpress UPSC Hub, and follow us on Instagram and X.